*Pro Tip: Throughout all the stages discussed in this piece, always take good notes on the sources you read and your thoughts in general. Jot down important points, ideas, and how they relate to your question. This habit will make writing much easier later on, and it will serve as a valuable reference for future projects you might want to undertake.
*Side note 1: A bunch of the stuff I discuss here can now be done with the assistance of AI models, which in my view definitely cuts down some of the time you need to spend doing this (and probably changes the research process in other important ways). Look out for a future post in which I give my thoughts about the specific ways in which AI models can be used in this process.
*Side note 2: I haven’t discussed how long each of these tasks should take because I think that question is too context-specific for me to give any general answers. That said, I think it’s important to be patient from the word go. As any experienced researcher will tell attest, producing a good paper takes a lot of time and anxious handwringing.
Stage 1: Basic reading, thinking & consulting
First, do some preliminary reading to find out what has already been written about your main research question (and related topics). Keep this initial reading surface-level — there’s no need to read every source in depth at this point. Skim through abstracts, introductions, conclusions, or summaries to get a general feel for the topic. The goal is to understand the big picture and the main ideas or debates surrounding your question.
After this initial exploration, consult a few trusted people (such as professors, mentors, or knowledgeable peers) to get their input on your topic. You might ask them questions like:
– “What do you think I should read to better understand this question?”
– “Is there an obvious answer to this question, to a degree that it’s not worth studying?”
– “What do you think a good answer to this question would need to take into account?”
Listening to their answers can point you toward important sources or perspectives you might have missed. It also helps you gauge whether you’re on the right track with your understanding of the question.
Finally, based on your reading and these conversations, decide on the key sub-questions or issues that you need to investigate further. These sub-questions should be directly related to your main research question. They represent the crucial topics you must examine to be able to build a strong answer. Make this decision deliberately and objectively. Try to set aside any pre-existing assumptions or biases (specifically cognitive biases) so you focus on what truly needs to be researched rather than what you hope to find.
Note: The sub-questions you identify here will guide the next stages of your research. Make sure each one clearly ties back to your main question, keeping your research focused and relevant.
Stage 2: Deeper reading, thinking & consulting
Once you’re clear on the specific sub-questions you want to address, it’s time to dive into in-depth research. This stage is extremely important, so approach it with seriousness and consistency.
Start by reading a broad range of sources to gain a well-rounded understanding of each sub-question. These sources can include news articles, expert reports, books, and academic papers. You can also watch explanatory videos or lectures (for example, a relevant YouTube talk) if they help clarify complex topics. Additionally, consider asking mentors or colleagues if they know of “must-read” sources on your subject. This way, you won’t miss out on influential ideas or important data that others in the field consider essential.
Your goal in this stage is to become as knowledgeable as possible about each of the issues you’re researching. Essentially, you should be aiming to become a mini-expert on your sub-questions. As you read, take thorough notes. Write down key points, arguments, and facts from each source, along with your own thoughts and reactions. Good note-taking will make your life much easier when you move on to writing, because you’ll have all the important information and references organized in one place.
Keep the following points in mind during your deep-dive reading:
– Understand before you record: Make sure you fully understand what each source is saying (and the context in which it’s said) before you write it down or plan to use it. If you’re not careful, it’s easy to misinterpret a point or take it out of context. Remember, people who review your work (or your future readers) won’t be checking every source for you. If a mistake or misquote slips into your paper, it could be very embarrassing and undermine your credibility. So, double-check that you’ve correctly grasped each source’s meaning.
– Read critically: Don’t accept everything you read at face value. Ask questions as you go: Is the author’s argument convincing?, Are there any logical flaws or unsupported assumptions?, Does this evidence really support the point it’s used for? Be on the lookout for biases or gaps in the author’s reasoning. By reading skeptically and critically, you’ll gather not just information, but also an understanding of differing viewpoints and the strengths and weaknesses in the existing literature.
– Stay focused on your question: Continuously relate what you’re reading back to your own research question and sub-questions. A good habit is to regularly ask yourself, “How does this information help me answer my question?” This keeps your reading purposeful. It helps you decide what details to note down and what to skim over. If you notice that a particular source or line of inquiry isn’t actually helping answer your question, you can save time by moving on to something more relevant.
– Know when to move on: One challenge in research is figuring out when to stop reading and move to the next topic. You don’t want to get stuck in an endless loop of reading. A good rule of thumb is: if new sources start to repeat the same ideas and facts you’ve already learned, then you’ve likely hit what we call a “knowledge loop.” At that point, you can confidently stop researching that sub-question and move to the next one on your list. (Later, if you happen to find another source on that topic, you can always do a quick check to see if it offers something truly new. If it does, update your notes; if not, you haven’t missed anything important.)
Stage 3: Writing your outline
After you’ve gathered a wealth of information and insights from your research, the next step is to organize your thoughts and plan your paper’s structure. This means writing a detailed outline of your paper. Think of the outline as the blueprint or roadmap for your entire paper — it will guide you when you start the actual writing.
A good outline typically includes:
– Sections and headings: List out all the sections of your paper (introduction, main sections, conclusion, etc.), including the headings and sub-headings you plan to use. This gives you a skeleton of the paper’s structure.
– Main points under each heading: Under each section or heading, jot down the key points or arguments you want to make there. This can include important facts or descriptive information you’ll present, any arguments or theories from your sources that you plan to discuss (prescriptive points), and your own analysis or claims. Keep these points brief for now — short phrases or bullet points are fine, as long as you understand what they mean.
– Sources and evidence: Identify the key sources or pieces of evidence that will support each of your points. You can note this in shorthand next to each point (for example, an author’s name or a brief title of a study). This way, you know exactly which references will back up each section of your paper when you start writing in full.
Once you have these elements, make sure your outline is organized in a logical flow, exactly how you intend to present your argument in the paper. In other words, check that the order of sections and points makes sense: Does each section follow naturally from the one before it? Does each sub-point fit under the right heading? Your outline should show a clear path from the introduction of your question to the conclusion.
Creating a thorough outline serves several important purposes:
– It lets you see the big picture. By laying out everything in an outline, you can visualize the entire structure of your paper before you begin writing. This helps you ensure that your argument has a clear beginning, middle, and end, and that you’re not missing any critical pieces.
– It allows you to get feedback early. You can share your outline with your advisor, instructor, or peers and ask for their thoughts. Because an outline is easier and quicker to review than a full draft, they can spot any issues (like a section that’s out of place or an argument that needs more support) and you can fix those before you invest time in writing the whole paper.
– It saves you time and effort in the long run. Revising an outline is much easier than revising a full draft. By resolving structural or logical problems at the outline stage, you avoid the painful scenario of having to rewrite entire sections after they’ve been fully written. In short, a good outline helps you avoid wasted effort.
I think this outline-first approach is much better than the common practice of writing a full draft of one section or chapter at a time and getting feedback only after each part is written. Remember that all parts of a paper are connected — What you write in one section will influence what needs to be said in another. By examining the whole structure upfront with an outline, you’re more likely to catch inconsistencies or gaps in your argument early. Once you and your mentors/peers are happy with the outline, you’ll have confidence that you’re ready to move forward and start writing the full paper.
Stage 4: Writing your full draft of the paper
With a solid outline in hand, you can now start writing the first full draft of your paper. This stage is about turning your outline’s bullet points and notes into a cohesive narrative with complete sentences and paragraphs. Here, you’ll be elaborating on each point, explaining your reasoning, and providing evidence in a flowing, readable form.
As you write, keep these guidelines in mind:
– Follow your outline as a roadmap. Expand each point from your outline into well-structured paragraphs. Sticking to the outline will help you cover everything important and maintain a logical order.
– Maintain a logical flow. Make sure the paper flows smoothly from one section to the next. Use transitional phrases or sentences at the end of a paragraph and the beginning of the next to connect ideas. Each section should build on the previous one, all contributing to your overall argument or thesis.
– Write clearly and concisely. Use straightforward language so your ideas are easy to understand. Avoid unnecessary jargon or overly complex sentences. If you need to include technical terms or concepts, briefly explain them so that an educated reader outside your specific field could follow your points.
– One idea per paragraph. Organize your writing so that each paragraph centers on a single main idea. Of course, “idea” here is relative. I use it to mean that the paragraph should contain sentences that are strongly inteconnected by similar facts or concepts. Also really important: Put similar ideas and sub-ideas close together in a logical flow, within and with-out paragraphs. This structure makes your argument easier to follow.
– Obviously, support every claim with evidence. Whenever you make a claim or present an important fact, back it up with data, examples, or references from your research (the sources you read in Stage 2). Don’t assume something is “obviously true” — always have good evidence or ample reasoning behind it. Tiny side note: Some people think it’s important but I don’t advocate for ensuring your sources are all in whatever citation standard you select at this point, unless you know exactly where your paper is heading. Instead, I think it’s best to simply record all the bibliographical details of each source so that you can eventually (and easily) turn the sources into whatever standard you decide on once you have a full draft paper.
– Be flexible and revise your plan if necessary. You might discover as you write that something in your outline doesn’t work as well as expected in full prose. Maybe a section needs to be split, merged with another, or moved elsewhere for the argument to make sense. Don’t be afraid to adjust your outline or reorganize on the fly. It’s better to change the structure now than to stick with a flawed plan. Writing is a discovery process, and it’s normal for your understanding of the best structure to evolve as you actually draft the paper.
– Don’t get stuck striving for perfection. Remember that this is your first draft, not the final version. It’s more important to get all of your ideas down on paper than to craft the perfect sentence right away. If a sentence or paragraph isn’t coming out exactly right, make a note and move on — you can refine it later. You might even write somewhat rough text for tricky parts and highlight it to revisit in the review stage. The key is to keep making progress through the draft.
– Overcome writer’s block by starting where you feel comfortable. You don’t necessarily have to write the paper in the order of the outline. If the introduction feels too daunting to start with, skip it for now and begin with a section you find easier or more exciting. Many writers actually draft the body (or specific sections of it) first, and write the introduction and conclusion last. Do whatever helps you build momentum. Once you have some sections written, you’ll understand your material even better, which can make writing the remaining parts (like the intro) a lot smoother.
By the end of this stage, you’ll have a complete first draft of your paper. It should cover all the sections in your outline, present a clear argument, and include all necessary evidence and citations. The draft may not be perfect — that’s expected — but now you have a full paper to refine in the next stage.
Stage 5: Reviewing and refining your draft
Now that you have a full draft, the final stage is to polish your paper and make it as strong as possible. This stage involves two main steps: first, reviewing and revising your draft on your own (self-review), and second, seeking feedback from others and incorporating their suggestions. Both steps are crucial for catching mistakes, improving clarity, and ensuring your argument is solid.
Self review
Take a break, then self-review your draft. Before you start editing, it’s a good idea to set your draft aside for a little while (even a day or two, if your schedule allows). Looking at your work with fresh eyes will help you notice issues you might overlook immediately after writing. When you’re ready, read through your entire paper critically, putting yourself in the mind of a super sceptical reader. Pay special attention to:
– Overall structure: Does the paper’s organization make sense as a whole? Check if each section flows naturally into the next. If something feels out of place or the sequence of ideas seems jarring, mark it for reordering.
– Clarity of arguments: Are your main arguments and points clearly stated and well-supported? Identify any spots where you struggle to follow your own explanation — that’s a sign the reader might get confused, and you may need to clarify or add evidence.
– Gaps or redundancies: Look for any gaps in your reasoning where an extra explanation or data might be needed. Also, check for redundancies — points that repeat unnecessarily. Every part of the paper should contribute something important. If it doesn’t, consider cutting or revising it.
– Relevance: Make sure every section and paragraph stays on topic and ties back to your main research question or thesis. If you find a paragraph that doesn’t really support your main argument, either refocus it or remove it.
– Writing and style: Note any sentences that are awkward or unclear. This is the time to simplify confusing phrasing and correct grammar or spelling errors. Reading your paper out loud can be helpful — If you stumble over a sentence or it sounds convoluted, that’s a clue it might need rewriting.
As you perform this self-review, you might find it helpful to make a list of the changes you want to make. You could also highlight or annotate your draft (if it’s on a computer or printed out) whenever you encounter something that needs fixing. Once you’ve read the whole paper, go back and implement the revisions you noted. This could involve reordering paragraphs, rewriting sections for clarity, adding a sentence to explain a point better, fixing typos, and so on. Take your time with this process; thorough self-editing greatly improves the quality of your work.
Seeking and Receiving Feedback from others
After you’ve revised the draft to the best of your ability, it’s very valuable to get outside feedback. Another person can often spot problems or unclear points that you, as the writer, might be too close to see. Choose someone whose judgment you trust, and make sure it’s also someone who you’re confident won’t be too soft on you and who you’re confident will rigorously review your work. They’re many people out there who’re very knowledgeable but don’t take young peoples’ work too seriously. These are the kind of people you should NOT be looking for. Also, try to go for someone who knows the field in which your paper lies quite well, even if they may not be an out-and-out expert.
Some tips for this task:
– When you ask someone to review your paper, give them some context, eg. by telling them what you’re planning to do with it once its ready. This will help them figure out what kind of advice to give you. Also, tell the person that you’re hoping for the most detailed and rigorous feedback possible, but you’re happy to receive whatever they can offer if they’re too busy. Finally, make sure you plan to give the person enough time (I usually require at least 3 weeks or so) to read and give you feedback.
– You can also ask for specific feedback if you have particular concerns. For instance, you might say, “My entire thesis rests on the argument in Section 3. Could you stress-test that rigorously?” Targeted questions can help your reviewer focus on the aspects you’re unsure about.
– Be open to the feedback you receive. Listen (or read) without defensiveness. It can be hard to receive criticism, but it’s a normal part of the writing process and even experienced researchers go through it.
– Take notes on the feedback. If the person is giving oral feedback, jot down the main points they mention. If it’s written feedback (comments on your draft or an email), read it carefully and highlight the key suggestions. Pay special attention if multiple people give you similar feedback — that usually indicates an area that definitely needs improvement.
– Don’t hesitate to ask follow-up questions. If you don’t understand a piece of feedback, or you need more detail (for example, “You mentioned the argument wasn’t clear in the middle; can you tell me which part exactly?”), it’s perfectly fine to seek clarification. This ensures you know why they are suggesting a change and how you might address it.
Incorporating the feedback and finalizing your paper
Now it’s time to take the insights from your reviewers and use them to make your draft even better. This step is essentially a second round of revision, guided by the external feedback you’ve gathered.
Tips:
– Go through each piece of feedback and decide how you will address it in your paper. Some feedback will point out clear issues (like a factual error, a confusing sentence, or a weak transition), which you should fix. Other feedback might be suggestions or opinions on how to improve something — you’ll need to use your judgment on these. Also, don’t just take suggested changes as truth. If you strongly believe a suggested change doesn’t actually help your paper, it’s okay to use your discretion. However, be honest with yourself about why you’re rejecting a suggestion; make sure it’s for a good reason and not just because it’s extra work or challenges your original thinking.
– Extrapolate from the feedback you receive. I mean: Look for (and address) other parts of your paper where you might have made the same errors as the ones your reviewer has highlighted. Sometimes reviewers miss mistakes and sometimes reviewers get tired of highlighting the same mistake over and over again so this approach can help you identify the errors in your work more accurately.
– Make the necessary changes in your draft. This can include rewriting paragraphs for clarity, adding information or evidence where something was lacking, removing parts that were unnecessary or off-track, and reordering sections to improve flow. As you implement changes, refer back to your outline and research notes as needed to ensure the modifications align with your overall plan.
– In case you received conflicting feedback from different people (for example, one person says “expand this section” and another says “shorten this section”), take a moment to evaluate the reasoning behind each. You might consult a third person or your advisor to discuss the best course, or trust your own understanding of the material and audience to decide. It’s your paper at the end of the day, so you have the final call on what advice to follow.
– After incorporating the feedback and making revisions, read through your paper again from start to finish. This final read-through is to double-check that everything still flows nicely and that the changes you made have resolved the issues without creating new ones. Sometimes in fixing one area, another minor issue can crop up (like a now-out-of-place sentence, or a repetitive phrase), so keep an eye out for that.
– Do a final proofread. Ensure that your spelling, grammar, and punctuation are correct throughout the paper. Format your document according to any guidelines you have (such as specific fonts, headings, or citation formats required by your school or publisher). Verify that all your in-text citations have matching entries in your reference list or bibliography, and that you haven’t accidentally forgotten any citations for facts or quotes.
– Make sure your introduction and conclusion (and be especially attentive to your introduction) are consistent with the body of your paper. Often, after writing and revisions, you might need to tweak the introduction or conclusion so that they accurately reflect the content and findings of the paper. For example, if your argument shifted slightly during writing and revising, update the introduction to preview the revised argument, and ensure the conclusion still effectively summarizes your now-refined points.
At the end of this stage, you should have a polished, refined final draft of your paper. Your research paper is ready to submit or share publicly!